Publications
Mulligan, J. et al. 2019
Hybrid infrastructures, hybrid governance:
New evidence from Nairobi (Kenya) on green-blue-grey infrastructure in informal settlements
"In expanding informal neighborhoods of cities in sub-Saharan Africa, sustainable management of storm and wastewater drainage is fundamental to improving living conditions. Planners debate the optimal combination between "green" or natural infrastructure, traditional "grey" infrastructure, and "blue" infrastructure, which mimics natural solutions using artificial materials. "
Hobbie, S. E., & Grimm, N. B. 2020
Nature-based approaches to managing climate change impacts in cities.
This paper investigates the effect of NBS in cities and argues that a better understanding of their effectiveness as well as costs and benefits is needed.
Toxopeus, H. et al. 2020
How ‘just’ is hybrid governance of urban nature-based solutions?
"Hybrid (or multi-actor) governance has been identified as a key opportunity for upscaling urban nature-based solutions (referred to as urban NBS), representing a demand-driven and cost-effective realization of urban green infrastructure. However, it is unclear how such hybrid governance affects the justice outcomes of urban NBS.."
Roy, M., Shemdoe, R., Hulme, D., Mwageni, N., & Gough, A. 2018
Climate change and declining levels of green structures: Life in informal settlements of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Roy et al. note that NBS in sub-Saharan Africa are "yet to make much headway." Their paper examines the impact of climate change on urban green structures in Dar es Salaam. One take-away message: cultural ecosystem services are of greatest importance to informal dwellers.
Thorn, J. P. R., Aleu, R. B., Wijesinghe, A., Mdongwe, M., Marchant, R. A., & Shackleton, S. 2021
Mainstreaming nature-based solutions for climate resilient infrastructure in peri-urban sub-Saharan Africa.
The authors analyse barriers and enablers to mainstreaming green infrastructure in informal settlements in Windhoek and Dar es Salaam. They find that, at the community level, the main barriers were related to design, maintenance, and performance.
Acreman, M., et al. 2021
Evidence for the effectiveness of nature-based solutions to water issues in Africa.
In examining the effectiveness of NBS to water-related risks in Africa, the authors conclude that site-specific urban interventions can reduce flood risk and pollution if local knowledge is included in design and implementation plans.
Tozer, L., Hörschelmann, K., Anguelovski, I., Bulkeley, H., & Lazova, Y. 2020
Whose city? Whose nature? Towards inclusive nature-based solution governance.How ‘just’ is hybrid governance of urban nature-based solutions?
This paper pursues the critical task of investigating to what extent NBS projects actually reinforce existing inequalities or create new forms of social exclusion. The authors suggest that project designs must recognise inequalities in the social geographies of how people connect to nature. Only then a more equitable distribution of access to urban nature could be guaranteed.
Adegun, O. B. 2018
When green is grievous: downsides in human-nature interactions in informal urban settlements.
"When green is grievous" looks at undesirable effects of NBS – trees hiding mosquitoes or wetlands carrying bad smell – in the context of urban informal settlements. Adegun argues that understanding the downsides in human-nature interactions helps inform ecologically sound interventions in informal areas.
Herslund, L., et al. 2018
Conditions and opportunities for green infrastructure–Aiming for green, water-resilient cities in Addis Ababa and Dar es Salaam.
An important contribution which argues that top-down master plans of nature-based infrastructure (NBI) do not work in the context of urban informal settlements. Not only are broad coalitions needed, but the green space managers on the ground must be incentivised to maintain the NBI.
Cilliers, J., Cilliers, S., & Lategan, L. 2021
Nature-Based Solutions for Public Green Spaces in Sub-Saharan Africa–Integrating Place-Making and Green Infrastructure.
This paper investigates the possibilities of an integrated nature-based approach to develop public open spaces in sub-Saharan Africa as public green spaces, drawing on placemaking and NBI.
Lindley, S., Pauleit, S., Yeshitela, K., Cilliers, S., & Shackleton, C. 2018
Rethinking urban green infrastructure and ecosystem services from the perspective of sub-Saharan African cities.
Lindley et al. acknowledge that decision-makers in many African cities frequently lack the scientific evidence through which their environmental policies might be made more effective. The authors suggest that more efforts must be made to understand urban ecosystems in sub-Saharan Africa to develop context-specific conceptual, theoretical and empirical foundations.
Titz, A., & Chiotha, S. S. 2019
Pathways for sustainable and inclusive cities in southern and eastern Africa through urban green infrastructure?
Studying NBS in Eastern and Southern Africa, the authors contend that the creation and design of resilient urban environments can only succeed if city dwellers are granted civic participation in urban resources and an active participation in the design of their living environment. Accordingly, a better understanding of the links between urban NBI and the right to the city is urgently needed.
Du Toit, M. J., et al. 2018
Urban green infrastructure and ecosystem services in sub-Saharan Africa.
Du Toit et al. identify seven barriers in the implementation of NBS in urban areas: (i) socio-cultural values, traditions and perceptions; (ii) lack of capacity; (iii) governance, urban planning and social inequality; (iv) lack of data and/or case studies; (v) ecosystem disservices; (vi) spatial trade-offs and conflicts; and (vii) climate change.
Cilliers, J., Cilliers, S., & Lategan, L. 2021
Nature-Based Solutions for Public Green Spaces in Sub-Saharan Africa–Integrating Place-Making and Green Infrastructure.
This paper investigates the possibilities of an integrated nature-based approach to develop public open spaces in sub-Saharan Africa as public green spaces, drawing on placemaking and NBI.
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Kabisch, N., et al. 2016
Nature-based solutions to climate change mitigation and adaptation in urban areas: perspectives on indicators, knowledge gaps, barriers, and opportunities for action.
Produced by some of the leading thinkers on NBS, this paper highlights the main needs for future NBS science and NBS policy agendas. Though published in 2016, the framework is still highly relevant today.
Diep, L., Dodman, D., & Parikh, P. 2019
Green Infrastructure in Informal Settlements through a Multiple-Level Perspective.
This paper highlights limitations in the current conceptualisation and implementation of NBS in the context of informal settlements. The authors propose a Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) that helps analyse and identify opportunities to overcome such limits.
Du Toit, M. J., et al. 2018
Urban green infrastructure and ecosystem services in sub-Saharan Africa.
Du Toit et al. identify seven barriers in the implementation of NBS in urban areas: (i) socio-cultural values, traditions and perceptions; (ii) lack of capacity; (iii) governance, urban planning and social inequality; (iv) lack of data and/or case studies; (v) ecosystem disservices; (vi) spatial trade-offs and conflicts; and (vii) climate change.
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Loan Diep, Joe Mulligan, Martha Akinyi Oloo, LoÄ— Guthmann, Mussa Raido and Tim Ndezi. 2022
Co-building trust in urban nature: Learning from participatory design and construction of Nature-Based Solutions in informal settlements in East Africa
While the amount of research on NBS is growing rapidly, there is a lack of evidence on community experiences of NBS design and implementation, particularly from low-income and informal settlements of African cities. This paper adds new empirical evidence in this space through grounded analysis of NBS “niche” projects co-developed by intermediary organizations and communities in five sites across three settlements in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam. Findings are organized around four established NBS knowledge gaps: (1) NBS-society relations; (2) Design; (3) Implementation; (4) Effectiveness.
Kabisch, N., et al. 2016
Nature-based solutions to climate change mitigation and adaptation in urban areas: perspectives on indicators, knowledge gaps, barriers, and opportunities for action.
Produced by some of the leading thinkers on NBS, this paper highlights the main needs for future NBS science and NBS policy agendas. Though published in 2016, the framework is still highly relevant today.
Conrad, P., Voraakhom, K. 2024
Works with Nature. Low Carbon Adaptation Techniques for a Changing World
This publication serves as a comprehensive resource for tackling climate adaptation, mitigation, and biodiversity challenges through Nature-based Solutions (NbS). Featuring 100 in-depth case studies, it balances examples from rural and urban contexts, with equal representation of initiatives in developing and developed countries. It offers insights into practical applications of NbS, showcasing innovative projects that demonstrate ecological, social, and economic benefits. It emphasizes the urgency of interdisciplinary collaboration and knowledge-sharing to bridge gaps in technical guidance and expertise, particularly in nations most vulnerable to climate impacts.
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With the UN calling for National Adaptation Plans by 2025, this collection provides a timely, actionable resource to inspire scalable solutions for climate resilience. By examining successes, lessons learned, and actionable strategies, the publication equips readers with the tools to address global challenges collectively—across geographic, socioeconomic, and political boundaries.
Nilsson, L. et all 2024
Costing of nature-based and grey solutions for water management: case studies in Nairobi
As African cities grapple with growing climate risks, particularly in informal settlements, Nature-based Solutions (NbS) offer a promising path to enhance urban resilience. This publication presents new evidence from Nairobi, comparing the life cycle costs of NbS with traditional grey infrastructure. While one NbS was initially more costly due to learning and design processes, a second demonstrated significant savings—highlighting the importance of context and experience. When accounting for wider social and environmental co-benefits, the study finds that NbS can offer competitive, cost-effective alternatives for climate adaptation in African cities.
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Diep, L., & McPhearson, T. (2025).
​Empowering cities globally: Four levers for transformative urban adaptation with nature‑based solutions
​As climate impacts intensify, cities face growing pressure to adapt. This publication explores how putting nature at the heart of urban planning can close the adaptation gap and foster more just, resilient futures. Drawing on lessons from across the globe, it identifies key barriers—knowledge gaps, weak policy incentives, and limited financing—and proposes four transformative levers to support inclusive, effective nature-based solutions in urban areas.
Frantzeskaki, N., Wijsman, K., Kabisch, N., & McPhearson, T. (2025)
Inter- and transdisciplinary knowledge base needed for nature-based solutions to contribute to just urban transformations
This publication explores how nature-based solutions (NBS) can help shift cities away from unsustainable development pathways. It argues that for NBS to truly support just urban transformations, a stronger inter- and transdisciplinary knowledge base is essential. The paper engages six key questions—“for what?”, “which nature?”, “where?”, “how?”, “when?”, and “for whom?”—and highlights two key opportunities: strengthening interdisciplinary approaches for multifunctional NBS, and ensuring inclusive stakeholder collaboration in context-specific planning. The authors stress that NBS are not inherently just or unjust—their impact depends on context, process, and institutional logic. To advance justice, the paper calls for a shift toward epistemological inclusivity in both research and practice.
Cook, E., Y. Kim, N.B. Grimm, T. McPhearson, P. Anderson, H. Bulkeley, M.J. Collier, L. Diep, J. Morató, and W. Zhou (2025)
Nature-based Solutions for Urban Sustainability
This publication explores how nature-based solutions (NbS) are emerging as critical strategies to address the growing sustainability and resilience challenges faced by cities worldwide. In response to climate change, biodiversity loss, and outdated infrastructure, NbS offer flexible, adaptive approaches that integrate natural processes into urban planning. Beyond climate mitigation, NbS also enhance public health, promote social equity, and restore ecological functions. Unlike traditional rigid infrastructure, NbS provide dynamic, multifunctional benefits that position them as essential tools for building livable, resilient, and inclusive urban futures.
Mguni, P., Herslund, L. B., Abrams, A. L., Carden, K., Tanyanyiwa, C., McLachlan, J., Schneuwly, R., & Armitage, N. (2025). Scaling deep at the margins: coproduction of nature-based solutions as decolonial research praxis in Cape Town. npj Urban Sustainability
This paper reflects on a transdisciplinary research project in Mitchells’ Plain, Cape Town, which explored the retrofitting of a stormwater detention pond as a multifunctional nature-based solution (NbS). Using a decolonial lens, the authors argue that while such ponds offer promising entry points for water resilience, they are also contested spaces shaped by social and historical inequalities. They introduce the idea of “scaling deep at the margin” as an important approach to experimenting with NbS in contexts of difference, highlighting how resistance and desire can be generative forces for challenging unjust power dynamics in the post-apartheid city. Rather than seeing failure in these experiments as a setback, the paper suggests it can provide valuable insights, concluding that sustainability transitions in the Global South are best understood as ongoing, contested processes where justice remains the central goal.
Gantner, G. (2025).
Exploring the potential of nature-based solutions in informal settlements upgrading: a transformative approach for Sub-Saharan Africa
This publication is about rethinking how nature-based solutions (NbS) are designed and implemented in informal settlements of sub-Saharan Africa. It explores participatory and network-based approaches — drawing on case studies from Kigali and Nairobi — that use local capacities and socio-ecological infrastructures to create inclusive, small-scale interventions that collectively strengthen urban resilience.
